Lincoln Movie Response free essay sample

Lincoln Response Paper There is a lot that happened in the movie last week. Overall I liked it. It was interesting to see what it was like back then. Some of my favorite parts are where Lincoln tells his stories. I was watching it and paid attention to how he said it. In that very soft and slow tone, he told the members, with almost no emotion until the endings. If I remember right Lincoln woke some of his employees up around three a. m. to try to decide if he should pardon a young man who took off instead of Joining the war. They were going to hang a 16 year old for being scared. That was also another thing that thought was interesting. I looked up some reviews on the movie this weekend and saw that in some way it distorted history. Those people who said that werent alive when all of this happened so how would they know what happened or didnt happen. We will write a custom essay sample on Lincoln Movie Response or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I dont know why people would dislike this movie, in my eyes it is one of the best historical movies I have ever seen. Also I was not alive when this happened either but I believe that these actions showed were true. Political tactics plays a huge part in the government. There are many things you can do like bribery or straight up overpowering and Just winning arguments. Lincoln bribed men with Jobs. In doing this those men would cast their vote the way Lincoln wanted. If he didnt use a little deception to sway those that would have never passed the amendment, where would we be today? Another thing he did was to please the people. There were people who were very against owning slaves. They thought it wasnt fair to the blacks. Lincoln didnt Just say I want it now! like a little baby. He took everything one step at a time and never got ahead of himself. As my grandpa says Dont be counting your chickens before they hatch! Lincoln convinced them that ratifying the amendment would force the south into surrendering. This didnt work however. Lincoln said that southern voters would be unlikely to ratify this amendment, passing it and ratifying it before the war ended was needed. Although he hated slavery, Lincoln recognized how most of the northern people felt about slavery when he took office. He made the primary purpose f the war effort to end the rebellion and preserve the union of the states. Lincoln had to convince thousands of northern soldiers to be willing to fight and possibly die to end slavery. He also had to convince the northern public that freedom for the slaves was worth the sacrifice of the lives of their sons and fathers. He then had to convince the northern congressional democrats to go against their own reluctance to end slavery. He had to do all of this in the course of the most costly war the nation would ever endure. I feel Thaddeus Stephens was the most important person in the assage of the thirteenth amendment. I feel he was a strong and honest man. He did what he could with the power he had. He also had a special way to talk to people. There was something in the way he spoke to people. Stephens was important in the passage by knowing the things he wanted had to come at a later time. Thaddeus knew this wouldnt happen overnight. The things he wanted had to come one at a time and not all at once. Stephens was a radical republican which knew there My opinion on whether the president be able to exercise more power than congress is no. The president has his powers and congress has their powers. There are three branches of government that balance each other out. One person shouldnt have more power than one hundred people in the senate. I feel our country would be better off having a vote of one hundred than a vote of yes or no. One vote the other way could send our nation spiraling downwards. Who knows where we would be now if the president had more power than congress. Today it would be chaos, in the 1700s they wouldnt know what to do because it is still so new to them. If it was like hat today our president would be having a hay day creating new laws and rules we have to follow as the people of the United States. To finalize all of this Lincoln did all he could do in his power to change the minds of the opposing party. Thaddeus Stephens was a radical republican who would never back down from a fight. Our government doesnt need to be ran under one person only, one hundred people have a better chance of making this country strive than just one individual. Lincoln was a good movie and I enjoyed watching it even though I missed the first half.

Directors notes on Shawshank Redemption Essay Example

Directors notes on Shawshank Redemption Essay Example Directors notes on Shawshank Redemption Paper Directors notes on Shawshank Redemption Paper Essay Topic: Film The Shawshank Redemption The first week of film was very stressful as we had so much preparation to do. The murder scene dark to symbolise the dark hideous act of murder, which would create the uncertainty as to who actually committed the crime. The passionate music was added to show the contrast of the violent act of murder and the irony that there was romance but it was tainted in deception and lies. This challenges the audience as to who is actually guilty. The courtroom was bright white to create the strong contrast from the darkness of the opening scene, to show there was no where for Andy to hide. The bright white courtroom also created the feeling of a stage spotlight on Andy. I decided on a moving shot of the jury was used to show that they were all individuals and to make the audience feel like the jury also because through the film we have to decide if Andy is guilty and if he deserved his punishment. The murder scenes and the courtroom scenes were intertwined using a flashback technique to emphasise and remind the audience how horrific the crime was, showing how the past affects the present. Andy will always be haunted by these memories. The scene when Andy entered the prison and his first night as a prisoner pleased me; it turned out exactly the way I wanted. I think it is important for the audience to be aware of the harshness of a prison environment, a high moving shot gives an immense impression of a concrete building cut off from society, contrasting with everything outside the prison gates which were colourful and full of life whilst everything on the other side looked colourless and almost dead. I used a birds eye view shot to show hundreds of men shuffling in the same direction, showing how they were all institutionalised. A tilting shot of the men entering the prison through its high and imposing gates was a final reminder that when the doors closed behind them was a symbol of their destiny. The powerful contrast between the silence and the noise of the name calling was made to show the prisoners experience, first hand. The audiences first impressions of the warden were paramount. He was wearing a dark suit with a silver cross and clutched a bible, suggested he was a dark man but had religious beliefs. But when he spoke he sounded hard and cold as though hiding behind his religion. It felt right that the prisoners should have been seen as animals, being deprived of their dignity, while being hosed down and deloused naked, to make the audience feel uncomfortable. The first night was shown as the reality of it all with the lights gradually going out and only seeing shadows and silhouettes, everyone the same, criminals. The audience were to feel sorry for the new prisoners and to show that I added silence and darkness which made the heartless attack on the prisoner even more horrifying as he was only a scared human being. I think this is possibly my favourite scene. The scene when Andy meets the sisters and how they treated him was a difficult scene to shoot in many ways. It has some disturbing content that I had to think seriously about editing out. I did however feel it was crucial to show the brutality. That is why I decided to only hint what was happening to Andy, instead of actually showing the violence, I used a camera shot which slowly takes the audience away from the scene to show that there is nothing that they could do to help Andy just merely feel sympathy for him. This would subsequently make his innocence even more poignant. This seemed to fit in more with my overall vision for the film, by letting the audiences imagination take over and visualise the torment Andy would have to go through. Prison life is survival of fittest as they turn on each other to feel a sense of superiority. Using Morgan Freemans character Red as the voice over was an integral part of this film, which was meant to express the thoughts and feelings of the audience. Prison life wasnt easy and Andy overcame all these things and never lost hope of one day being free once again. This scene was the one were Tommy was killed, it wasnt my favourite to shoot but it has a huge impact on the film. Its always hard when you know a character has to die. The scene needed a lot of takes to try and make it as realistic as possible; we shot it in a dimly lit area with shadows to give the audience a sense of anxiety and suspicion. The yard would have been a place for the men to get away from the guards for a time. This was the purpose for the Warden taking Tommy there. It felt best that the Warden started with good news to relieve Tommy of worry, gave him a cigarette to manipulate Tommy into thinking the Warden wanted to create a calm atmosphere. That would suggest that there was an understanding between the two of them. A close up the Wardens and Tommys face was used to highlight that Tommy was being sincere unlike the Warden who wasnt. The Last scene concludes with the Warden looking up into night and nodding, as Tommy gazes up, the guard advances from the darkness and shoots him three times. A close up the Warden stubbing out his cigarette demonstrates how effortlessly he could extinguish someones life. A Long shot of the Warden giving his final look at Tommys corpse was effective so the audience would feel intimidated by the callous Warden and a sense filled with dread for Andys future. I was thrilled with the scene of Andys escape, particularly with the fusion of flashbacks and the voiceovers by Freeman. The two of them working together gives us a perception into the thought process behind Andys plan. He doesnt mention it to anyone, as discreet and as fastidious as he is. What makes Andys plan so brilliant is that, even the viewer doesnt know he has escaped until, you see the empty cell, because his last night is just like any other. When the Warden arrives, the cell has been torn apart. As the thrown stone echoes down the tunnel, its crucial because that is the precise moment when the Warden, Red and the guard realise Andys escape route. I felt the images of the escape tool in the press were symbolic of Andys victory. Captivating the audience was simple, using tense music, which exhibits the magnitude of Andys escape, gives us an insight into what he had to encounter and how intelligent and exact his plan was. It was difficult thinking about what was going to happen on the night of Andys escape, and then I had this idea about the weather. Having a thunder and lighting storm which would make the scene more dramatic and exciting, it also gave a vivid backdrop. It shows nature at its most violent mirroring Andys escape. Finally after a lot of consideration I decided that Andy would exit the 500 yards of sewage with the voiceover giving an insight into how atrocious it was. A high angle shot moving away from Andy meant that it gave the impression of him thanking God for his freedom as he elevates his hands. It is almost like he is leaving his past behind him, Andy the convicted murderer, going forth into the future as Andy, the successful escapee. The rain symbolizes his body and mind being cleansed of his sins. The Wardens words Its a miracle echoed to show that it actually was a miracle. The final scene were Andy and Red reunite, I think is the happiest in the whole movie. It was important that this music reflected Reds happiness. In the corn field he felt the sun in his face, the breeze in his hair, all these things most men take for granted. The long shot shows the big oak tree where Andy met his first love. The last shot of the vibrant blue ocean, the golden sandy beach, more than met Reds first expectations, with Andy and Red being the only two living souls on the beach. The majority of scenes and music in this scene were tense and dark until the last scene, where it in total contrast became vibrant, colourful and warm. I had several ideas for an alternative ending. When the Warden found out that Andy had set up an off shore bank accountant for himself and then got all his privileges and bricked up the library. The Warden then threw him into the hole where he spent the of his, slowly going insane. My chosen ending meant that justice had prevailed and after all the horrors both men eventually got their freedom. I feel that this film shows us that no matter what happens you have to have hope and faith that in the end you will be free.

Draconian Implies Cruelty

Draconian Implies Cruelty Draconian Implies Cruelty Draconian Implies Cruelty By Maeve Maddox During the recent Congressional gridlock regarding the federal budget, the word draconian has become a common epithet used to preface the words budget cuts, in the way the epithet powerful usually precedes Ways and Means Committee. How appropriate is the use of draconian to describe budget cuts? It depends. Asking the Pentagon to cut some of its $463 billion non-war related expenditures is not the same as cutting off a thiefs hand for stealing. Eliminating programs that are keeping people alive, on the other hand, might appropriately be called draconian. Apart from budget cuts, draconian is often used in contexts in which official procedures are seen as unnecessarily cruel or tyrannical: Over the past week, the unrest in the Middle East deepened, with growing protests in Bahrain and Libya, and more draconian measures by the countries’ leaders to quash the opposition. A new report this week from Human Rights Watch peers into Chinas Draconian and ineffective incarceration of people struggling with drug addiction. We are not going to take the draconian police measures necessary to deport 11 million people. Draconian new measure requires police to arrest anybody who cant prove they are a US citizen. Since 2005, a rather draconian law has been adopted to deal with offenders. Failure to pay a ticket results in the revocation of driving privileges in Quebec. Somali women complain of draconian Sharia restrictions. Draconian [drÄ -kÃ… nÄ“-É™n ] is an eponym, a word derived from a persons name: draconian (or draconic) of, pertaining to, or characteristic of Draco, archon at Athens in 621 B.C., or the severe code of laws said to have been established by him; rigorous, harsh, severe, cruel. OED Although draconian has come to mean unreasonably harsh, Dracos written code in which punishments were spelled out was seen at the time as being more just than arbitrary punishments inflicted by the local authority figure. According to legend, Dracos code prescribed death for most offenses. Plutarch passed along this much-quoted anecdote: It is said that Drakon himself, when asked why he had fixed the punishment of death for most offenses, answered that he considered these lesser crimes to deserve it, and he had no greater punishment for more important ones. I say according to legend because Ive read that in the only fragment of Dracos code that survives, exile (not death) is the punishment for homicide. Dracos name could have something to do with the fact that his code of laws entered Greek memory as being really really cruel: Greek dracon means dragon or serpent. Bottom line: draconian is a strong word that conveys disregard for the humane treatment of others. Its wasted as a mere synonym for extreme. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:7 English Grammar Rules You Should KnowWhat is the Difference Between Metaphor and Simile?Preposition Mistakes #1: Accused and Excited

Film review the film is No Country For Old Man Essay

Film review the film is No Country For Old Man - Essay Example Although the Western Country terrain is a time-tested cinematic formula, the directors bring fresh perspectives to it. The acclaimed Western Classicism of past directors as Anthony Mann and Sam Peckinpah are presented within new frameworks. Tommy Lee Jones (Ed Tom Bell) plays the sheriff in a West Texas county, who increasingly grows wary of crime and violence in the region. As tension hangs about the county, a drug deal duel breaks out, in which several men are killed and a few others wounded. Josh Brolin (Llewelyn Moss) who finds himself caught in this swirl luckily escapes injury. More fortuitously, he gets possession of a satchel containing $2 millions, which he hordes away in his trailer park home. But when he returns to the scene to save a wounded man later that night, he is chased by two unknown persons and also loses his vehicle in the process. The tempo increases from this point on, as different parties attempt to get hold of the cash. Javier Bardem (Anton Chigurh) plays the role of a hitman hired to get back the satchel. Hence he starts his chase of Llewelyn Moss. Having already killed a police officer before, he is sought by Ed Tom Bell. Hence a triangle of targets is set up in the plot. The further encounters and the attendant suspicion between the three parties constitute the rest of the narrative. Although such a story line is not unique by any means, the screenplay and dialogue are crisply written and well-executed by the actors. Particularly impressive is the role of Anton Chigurh, played by Javier Bardem. As Houston Chronicle reviewer Amy Biancolli succinctly notes, â€Å"he is diabolical in this guise, and he would be even if he didn’t stroll through the movie plugging holes into foreheads with a compressed-air tank. Few actors can play single-mindedness as chillingly as Bardem...† (Biancolli, 2007) The screenplay is laced with a morbid, dark sense of humor, which goes well with the underlying plot structure. There are semblances to Texas Chainsaw Massacre, but in terms of symbolism and metaphor No Country is richer. Especially striking are metaphors of evil in the actions of the wrong-doers, who are earnestly pursued by the dutiful Sheriff, who comes across as a lone-ranger amid the litany of evil mongers running after quick money. Coen brothers need also be credited for their able handling of the novel form and its smooth adaptation onto screen. Given their poor track record of novel adaptations, this is an impressive and faithful work. Although gun violence is integral to the plot and the genre, there is too much of it during climax sequences. And as expected it is Anton Chigurh who is at the centre of much of the carnage. His shooting spree at times borders on the insane and the directors might have gone overboard in this respect. Tommy Lee Jones is the stand out actor among the cast, for though he could not prevent the killings or accomplish his mission, his commitment and moral authority is clearly vi sible. As the story marches towards its conclusion, there is evidence of despondency in Jones’ eyes, which is recognition of his failure to avert much of the transpired violence. In conclusion, the words of noted critic Ian Buckwalter serve as a suitable summary assessment of the merit of the movie: â€Å"But don't let the humor fool you.

Service Learning Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Service Learning Project - Essay Example Critical analysis of the major findings obtained through the discussion and development of an action plan have also been considered as the objectives in this paper. The services that are provided by DHA with its community organization of ‘Hidden Ridge Apartment’ majorly include ‘After School Programs’ to provide educational support through home study centers for both children and parents. Another service rendered by the organization is the ‘Resident Employment Program’ which principally concentrates on boosting the employment and educational opportunities within the society as well as rendering other support services (Dallas Housing Authority, 2007). The after school program for the children and parents are effective educational support which comprises of courses from preliminary level to high school courses rendered through the home study centers of DHA and its communities. The home study center also attempts to provide an instructive education facility after their schooling hours for five days in a week. The study center associated with its cooperative partner such as Dallas Ministries in order to provide educational supports to the community members (Dallas Housing Authority, 2007). The training services that are rendered by DHA are significantly emphasized on creating employment opportunities by assuring effective communication skill development programs through assessment testing, career counseling, placement support, job readiness exercises and so on for the young generation in the community. Additionally, the housing community also facilitates other beneficial guidance in terms of wealth management skills, personality development programs, and transportation assistance along with personal life improvement assistance (Dallas Housing Authority, 2007). DHA focuses on providing housing as well as other social facilities on a

Values Of Health And Social Care Social Work Essay

Values Of Health And Social Care Social Work Essay When working in health and social care, there are certain laws and policies which we have to follow. Some of them are the policies and procedures made by our organizations while some are rules and regulations set up by the government. Principle of practice means abiding by all of the rules; policies and procedures so as to fulfil the requirements which we need to follow in order to be an ideal professional in health and social care. VALUES OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE In health and social care, values are the beliefs and ideas that guide us about the way we are supposed to care for others. Examples from experience We can understand and learn more about the values in health and social care working as a care worker in different roles and settings. It is not mandatory that an individual should only be cared for in a nursing home or a residential home. It can even be his/her home. Different types of care settings are as follows: Primary care When someone notices the early symptoms of health disorder then they often visit the GPs. If the GPs find out that the case is rather more serious then the GP suggests that person to go to a specialist. However the individual can return to the GP for follow up care and monitoring of his disorder. Nursing treatments, physiotherapy, radiography and other specialist care may be undertaken at the GPs surgery. Hospital care Sometimes when the patients reach the later stages of a disease or if they need intensive care then they might be subjected to hospitals. Domiciliary care There is often a negative belief among the elderly people that they might not return home if they are sent to a care home or a hospital. In these cases, they want care to be provided in their own homes. When the care worker provides care by travelling to the clients home then it is called domiciliary care. Agencies that provide home care workers should be obliged under the 1973 Act and should make sure that the staffs have undergone proper training and should provide them with necessary equipments. A good agency will have a different department for recruitment and training of staffs and a different one for client enquiries. Domiciliary care can be a problematic process especially when a single care worker has to attend many clients. Residential care In the further stages of a disease, a patient needs to be under care 24 hours a day. Such people need to be sent to a residential care home where they can be looked after by a team of staffs. People with dementia, Alzheimers disease or arthritis need advanced care and hence they can be admitted to a nursing home. It is not necessary that every client in a residential care home is suffering from a disease. When families and relatives are unable to look after the elderly people in their home due to their busy schedules then also they may trust residential care homes to keep the elderly people. According to best care home awards, Morton Grange is Britains best residential care home in 2009. Requirements The requirements for maintaining the values of health and social care are as follows: Equality Different people have different needs. It is essential that the same principle of fairness is used to meet their needs. Therefore, the definition of equality is not only equal treatment of all the individuals but it the similar treatment of individuals in similar conditions. Let us suppose that in a hospital, there are a number of patients with a particular type of brain tumour. In this situation, they should be offered the same option for treatment even if their choices may differ based on a range of factors. Equal opportunities should always be available for everyone. Diversity The word diversity refers to the variations found in the characteristics and nature present among the individuals within a population. When we look at a population then we can notice that people are different from one another in their own ways. We can feel the differences in the language, religion, race, tradition, norms and values of people. For instance, According to National Statistics Online 2007, UK population consists of 71.7 % Christians, 3.1% Muslims, 1.1% Hindus, 0.6% Sikhs, 0.3% Jewish and 0.3% Buddhists. This statistics shows the diversity in religion of the UK population in 2007. As a care worker, it is important to realize the social context in order to understand our service users and accept diversity with all our hearts. Dignity According to the Social Care Institute for Excellence (2006), dignity refers to the state, quality or manner worthy of esteem or respect; and (by extension) self-respect. In the field of health and social care, one should not forget that every person has his own individuality. Being a care worker, one should intend to promote the self esteem of the service users and we should have a sense of respect for everybody regardless of any sort of differences in order to express that we value their dignity. Let us put forward the example of old people who tend to find happiness in small things such as the weather and flowers and try to maintain their dignity and self respect by remembering their past achievements. Listening to them and giving them priority can really help to enhance their dignity. Protect The values of health and social care are likely to be disturbed in some cases. The steps to be considered in order to protect the values in health and social care are: Taking account of limitations We have got our own sets of rights but this sometimes while using our rights we might forget what our limits are. If we forget our limits then we may be successful in hurting other peoples feelings and also violate their rights. Suppose somebody is a popular author. He has the right to express his views, ideas and creativity through his works. However, this does not necessarily mean that he can write negative things about people of a particular group or culture. He cannot mix something like racism in his writings and hurt others. That is not his right. Hence, we should take account of our limitations. Use relationships to promote rights Gilchrist (1992) suggests a number of ways to ensure that discrimination does not exists in our society, they are: Recognise prejudice and discriminatory practice that it can lead to; Value diversity; Understand a need to find ways to empower others; Combat discrimination and encourage others to combat discrimination; Reflect on the organisation and the policies, procedures, practices and facilities which might support anti discriminatory practices. Impact of discrimination on others The unequal treatment and attitude that we show to others is known as an act of discrimination. People can discriminate on the basis of sex, religion, social class, ethnicity, race, etc. We have to abide by the anti-discriminatory acts such as sex discrimination act, Race Relations Act, etc. because discrimination can have only negative impact on the following aspects: Identity When someone is discriminated then he/she may start losing the honour which should possess regarding their identities. For example, when someone is discriminated on the basis of his religion then he may adapt some other religion just to be accepted by others. Self-esteem and confidence Discriminatory acts hinder ones dignity and decrease ones willingness to participate in social activities. For example, due to the sexual discrimination faced by gays, lesbians and transgendered people, they grow up feeling isolated and conscious about difference between them and others. According to www.citizenship.ahsonline.co.uk, over 70% of transsexuals have contemplated suicide in their lives. Colleen Rothwell-Murray. Commissioning domiciliary care: a practical guide to purchasing services. 2000. Oxon: Radcliffe Medical Press Ltd. Sue Cuthbert, Jan Quallington, Values for care practice. 2008. Devon: Reflect Press Ltd. www.pressdispensary.co.uk

Signal Conditioning of Thermistor

Introduction Signal conditioning of thermistor Signal conditioning means manipulating an analogue signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing. Operational amplifiers(op-amps) are commonly employed to carry out the amplification of the signal in the signal conditioning stage. The signal conditioning equipment may be required to do linear processes like amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation, addition and subtraction.They are also required to do non-linear processes like modulation, demodulation, sampling, filtering, clipping and clamping squaring, linealizing or multiplification by another function etc. the signal conditioning or data acquisition equipment in many a situation be an excitation and amplification system for passive transducer. It may be an amplification system for active transducer. In both the applications, the transducer output is brought up to a sufficient level to make it useful for conversion, proces sing, indicating and recording.Excitation is needed for passive transducers because these transducers do not generate their own voltage or current. Therefore passive transducers like strain gauges, potentiometers, resistance thermometers, inductive and capacitive transducers required excitation from external sources. The active transducers like techno generators, thermocouples, inductive pick ups and piezo-electric crystals. The thermistor constitute one arm or more than one arm of a wheatstone bridge which is excited by an isolated DC source. The bridge can be balanced by a potentiometer and can also be calibrated for unbalanced conditions.Thermistor is a concentration of the term â€Å"Thermal Resistor†. It is essentially a semiconductor, which behaves as a resistor with a high negative temperature coefficient of resistance. That is, as the temperature of the thermistor increases, its resistance decreases. The temperature co-efficient is expressed in ohms per unit change in degree Celsius ( ° C). thermistors with high temperature co-efficient of resistance are more sensitive to temperature change and are therefore well suited to temperature measurement and control.CONTENTS  ¦OBJECTIVE  ¦EXPLAINATION 1. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 2. THERMISTOR 3. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 4. INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER  ¦METHODOLOGY  ¦SCOPE 1. Wheatstone bridge: Whetstone bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring resistances and is popular for laboratory use. The circuit diagram of typical Wheatstone bridge is given in figure Rx is the unknown resistance to be measured; R, R2 and R^ are resistors of known resistance and the resistance of R2 is adjustable.If the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg (R2 / R) is equal to the ratio of the two in the unknown leg (Rx / R3), then the voltage between the two midpoints (B and D) will be zero and no current will flow through the galvanometer Vg. R2 is varied until this condition is reached. The direction of the current indicates whether R2 is too high or too low. Detecting zero current can be done to extremely high accuracy (see galvanometer). Therefore, if R, R2 and R3 are known to high precision, then Rx can be measured to high precision.Very small changes in Rx disrupt the balance and are readily detected. At the point of balance, the ratio of R2 / R = Rx / R3 Therefore, Alternatively, if R, R2, and R3 are known, but R2 is not adjustable, the voltage difference across or current flow through the meter can be used to calculate the value of Rx, using Kirchoff s Circuit laws (also known as Kirchhoff s rules). This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance thermometer measurements, as it is usually faster to read a voltage level off a meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.In practical Wheatstone bridge, at least one of the resistance is made adjustable, to permit balancing. When the bridge is balanced, the unknown resistance (normally connected at Rx) may b e determined from the setting of the adjustable resistor, which is called a standard resistor because it is a precision device having very small tolerance. Rx= (R2/R1). R3 APPLICATION OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the DC resistance of various types of wire, either for the purpose of quality control of the wire itself or of some assembly in which it is used.For example, the resistance of motor winding, transformers, solenoids, relay coils and resistance of thermistor, RTD also can be measured. PRINCIPLE Resistance of thermistor changes with change in temperature. Resistance of thermistor decreases with increase in temperature while resistance of thermistor increases with decrease in temperature. It is a thermally sensitive resistor. FORMULA:- Rti = Rt2Exp[ p (1 / T1 – 1 / T2) ] Where,RT]= resistance of thermistor at absolute temp. Tl °k RT2= resistance of thermistor at absolute temp. T2 °k P= a constant depending upon the material of the thermistor (Typically between 3500 °k to 4500 °k)CONSTRUCTION:- Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt, Copper, Iron and Uranium. They are available in a variety of sizes and shapes. They may be in the form of beads, roads and discs. WORKING:- A thermistor change in electrical resistance due to a corresponding temperature change is evident whether the thermistor's body temperature is changes as result of conduction or radiation from the surrounding environment or due to self heating brought about by power dissipation within the device. THEORY:- .Thermistor is a concentration of the term ‘Thermal Resistor†. It is essentially a semiconductor which behaves as a resistor with a high negative temperature coefficient of resistance. That is, as the temperature of the thermistor increases, its resistance decreases. The temperature co-efficient is expressed in ohms per unit change in degree celcius ( ° C). thermisto rs with high temperature co-efficient of resistance are more sensitive to temperature change and are therefore well suited to temperature measurement and control. Thermistors are available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.However, thermistor beads sealed in the tips of glass rods are most commonly used because they are relatively easy to mount TYPES OF THERMISTOR:- 1]PTC 2]NTC NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) It implies that the resistance of thermistor decreases with increases in its temperature. These thermistors can detect changes in temperature, which could not be observed with RTD's or Thermocouple circuits. NTC type thermistors mostly used in industry. Resistance of thermistor is used in industry is 2. 2 k Q. for temperature 30 °C. It's cost near about Rs. 10-15 SPECIFICATION:- *Range(? ): 50-300 *Accuracy : ± 1 *Resolution: 0. 01 ? C *Scale: Non-Linear *Thermister Constant: 4000? K OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIRES: One type of amplifier, which finds its way into almost a ll points of measurement and instrumentation system, is the operational amplifier. The word operational indicates that the amplifier can perform mathematical operations like inversion addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, integration and differentiation etc. Properties of ideal operational amplifier are: 1. It should have an infinite input impedance. 2. It should have zero output impedance. 3.It should have an infinite gain (gain of the order of 105 to 109) 4. It should have flat response over a wide frequency range. The operational amplifier consists of a very high gain amplifier with a negative > feedback. The gain of operational amplifier with negative feedback is determined by feedback components and not by the internal amplifier circuitry. APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER: Some of the important applications of an op-amp are: 1. Amplifiers 2. Active filters 3. Arithmetic circuits 4. Log and antilog amplifiers 5. Voltage comparators 6. Waveform generators 7.Precis ion rectifiers 8. Multipliers 9. Timers 10. Multivibrators 11. Regulated power supplies Operational amplifier characteristics: 1. Input offset voltage : The input offset voltage is defined as the voltage that must be applied to the input terminals to drive the output to zero. This is about 2mV for 741 amplifier. It should be understand thet the offset voltage changes with temperature. 2. Input offset current: just as a voltage offset may be required across the input to make the output voltage zero, so a net current may be required between the inputs to zero the output voltage.This current is called input offset current. This is equal to the difference between the two input currents. 3. Input bias current: It is defined as the mean of the two input currents required to make the output voltage zero. 4. Slew rate: it is the highest rate at which the output can change, it is expressed in terms of v/jiS. 5. Unity gain frequency: in many cases, specifications include the frequency respons e including unity gain frequency. This is the frequency at which the open loop gain of the amplifier becomes unity. The low frequency gain is about 20,000 and falls to unity at about 1MHz. he amplifier is said to have a 1 MHz gain bandwidth produt. 6. Common mode rejection ratio (CMMR): it is defined as the ratio of differential gain to common mode gain. CMRR is infinite for ideal op-amp. Thus the output voltage corresponding to the common mode noise is zero. IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS OF OP-AMP: 1. Gain is maximum. 2. Input impedence should be infinite. 3. Output impedence should be zero. 4. CMRR should be infinite. 5. Bandwidth should be infinite. TYPICAL VALUES OF OP- AMP: 1. Input offset voltage:  ± 6mV. 2. Input offset current:  ±200nAmp 3. Input bias current:  ±7nAmp 4.Differential input resistance/impedence: 2m CI 5. Input impedence for 741 (FET op-amp): 1000 G Q 6. Output impedence: 75 Q. 7. Gain: 2 lakhs 8. Output voltage swing: 26Vpp 9. Supply current: 2. 8 mAmp APPLICATI ONS:- 1. It is used in lab and medical purpose. 2. PTC type thermistors are used to protect the motor from overheating. 3. It gives very accurate reading at high temperature. 4. For measurement of level pressure, flow of the liquid, composition of gases, thermal conductivity and vaccum measurement. UA741 General-purpose single operational amplifier UA741 General-purpose single operational amplifierFeatures * Large input voltage range * No latch-up * High gain * Short-circuit protection * No frequency compensation required * Same pin configuration as the UA709 Applications * Summing amplifiers * Voltage followers * Integrators * Active filters * Function generators Description The UA741 is a high performance monolithic operational amplifier constructed on a single silicon chip. It is intended for a wide range of analog applications. N DIP8 (plastic package) D SO-8 (plasticmicropackage) Pin connections (top view) 2 – Inverting input 3 – Non-inverting input 4 – VCC - 5 – Offset null 2 6 – Output 7 -Vcc+ – N. C. The high gain and wide range of operating voltages provide superior performances in integrator, summing amplifier and general feedback applications. The internal compensation network (6 dB/octave) ensures stability in closed- loop circuits. 1/11 www. st. com Schematic diagram 1 Schematic diagram UA741 Figure 1. Schematic diagram Absolute maximum ratings and operating conditions 2 Absolute maximum ratings and operating conditions Table 1. Absolute maximum ratings Symbol| Parameter| Value| Unit| Vcc| Supply voltage|  ±22| V| Vid| Differential input voltage|  ±30| V| Vi| Input voltage|  ±15| V| Output short-circuit duration| Infinite| | Rthja| Thermal resistance junction to ambient SO-8 DIP8| 125 85|  °C/W| Rthjc| Thermal resistance junction to case SO-8 DIP8| 40 41 |  °C/W| ESD| HBM: human body model(1) DIP package SO package| 500 400| V| | MM: machine model(2)| 100| V| | CDM: charged device model(3)| 1. 5| kV| Tstg| Storage temperature range| -65 to +150|  °C| 1. Human body model: a 100 pF capacitor is charged to the specified voltage, then discharged through a 1. 5kfl! resistor between two pins of the device. This is done for all couples of connected pin combinations while the other pins are floating. . Machine model: a 200 pF capacitor is charged to the specified voltage, then discharged directly between two pins of the device with no external series resistor (internal resistor < 5 n). This is done for all couples of connected pin combinations while the other pins are floating. UA741 3. Charged device model: all pins and the package are charged together to the specified voltage and then discharged directly to the ground through only one pin. This is done for all pins. 4. 4. INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER: The low level signal output of electrical transducers often need to be mplified before further processing. This is done by the use of instrumentation amplifier. The important features of instrumentation amplifier are as follows. 1. Selectable gain with high gain accuracy and gain linearity. 2. Differential input capability with high gain common mode rejection. 3. High stability of gain with low temperature co-efficient. 4. low DC offset and drift errors referred to input. 5. low output impedance. The input amplifiers A[ and A2 act as input buffers with unity gain for common mode signals ecm and with a gain of (1+2R2/Ri) for differential signals.A high input impedance is ensured by the non-inverting configuration in which they operate. The common mode (cm) rejection is achieved by the following stage which is connected as a differential amplifier. The optimum common mode rejection can be obtained by adjusting R6 or R7 ensuring that Ei – Ei R4 R6 The amplifier A3 can also be made to have some nominal gain for the whole amplifier by an appropriate selection or R4, R5, R6 and R7. The drift errors of the second stage add to the product of the drift errors of t he first amplifier and first stage gain.Hence, it is necessary that the gain in the first stage be enough to prevent the overall drift performance from being significantly affected by the drift in the second stage. The drift problem of instrumentation amplifier can be improved if amplifiers Ai and A2 have offset voltages, which tends to track the temperature. The gain of an instrumentation amplifier can be varied by changing R{ alone. A high gain accuracy can be obtained by using precision metal film resistors for all the resistance. Figure shows a simplified differential instrumentation amplifier using a transducer bridge.A resistive transducer, thermistor, whose resistance changes as a function of some physical quantity such as temperature is connected in one arm of the bridge and is denoted by (Rr  ± A R), where RT is the resistance of the thermistor and delta R is the change in the Generally, resistors Ra, Rb and Rc are selected so that they are equal in value to the transduce r resistance RT at some reference condition. The bridge is balanced initially at a desired reference condition. However, as the temperature changes, the resistance of the thermistor also changes causing the bridge to unbalance (Va 4- Vb).The output voltage of the bridge can be expressed as a function of the change in the resistance of the thermistor. Let the change in resistance of the thermistor be delta R. since Rb and Rc are fixed resistors, the voltage Vb is constant. However, voltage Va varies as a function of the change in thermistor resistance. Therefore The negative sign in this equation indicates that Va